过去分词的概念：

过去分词一般表示完成和被动的动作，只有一种形式。即：动词原形加-ed构成。
如：fallen leaves 落叶 
        boiled water 开水
        I heard the door closed. 我听见门被关上了。

过去分词与现在分词被动式的区别：

两者均可表示被动，其区别主要在于它们所表示的时间概念不同，但有时它们也可表示相同的意思。
如：Written in haste, the book has many mistakes. 这书因写得仓促，所以错误不少。 
        Being written in haste, the book has many mistakes. 这书因写得仓促，所以错误不少。 
        Having been written in haste, the book has many mistakes. 这书因写得仓促，所以错误不少。
有时虽然所表示的时间概念相同，但有细微区别：
如：Having been show the lab, we left. 被领着看了实验室后，我们就离开了。

过去分词的句法功能：

1、作定语：
如：I don't like the book written by Martin.
       Our class went on an organized trip last Monday. 上周一我们班开展了一次有组织的旅行。 
注意：当过去分词是单词时，一般用于名词前，如果是过去分词短语，就放在名词的后面。过去分词做定语相当于一个被动语态的定语从句。
2、过去分词作表语：
如：They were very excited at the news. 听到这个消息，他们非常激动。
        The window is broken. 窗户破了。
        They were frightened at the sad sight. 他们对眼前悲惨的景象感到很害怕。
注意：be+过去分词，如果表示状态是系表结构，如果表示被动的动作是被动语态。
区别：The window is broken.（系表）
            The window was broken by the boy.（被动）
有些过去分词是不及物动词构成的，不表示被动，只表示完成。
如：boiled water（开水） fallen leaves（落叶） newly arrived goods（新到的货） the risen sun（升起的太阳） the changed world（变了的世界）
这类过去分词有：gone, come, fallen, risen, changed, arrived, returned, passed等。
3、过去分词作宾语补足语：
如：I heard the song sung several times last week. 上周我听见这首歌被唱了好几次。
有时过去分词做with短语中的宾语补足语：
如：With the work done, they went out to play. 工作做完了，他们出去玩去了。
4、过去分词作状语：
如：Praised by the neighbours, he became the pride of his parents.  受到邻居们的表扬，他成为父母的骄傲。（表示原因）
        Onceseen, it can never be forgotten. 一旦它被看见，人们就忘不了。（表示时间）
        Given more time, I'll be able to do it better. 如果给予更多的时间，我能做得更好。（表示条件） 
        Though told of the danger, he still risked his life to save the boy.  虽然被告之危险，他仍然冒生命危险去救那个孩子。（表示让步） 
        Filled with hopes and fears, he entered the cave. 心中充满了希望与恐惧，他走进山洞。
5、过去分词与逻辑主语构成独立主格：
如：All books returned at the end of the term, the library assistant was satisfied. 所有的书期末时都还了，图书管理员很高兴。
        The field ploughed, he began to spread seed. 地耕好了，他开始撒种子。

现在分词与过去分词的区别：

1、分词作表语：
分词做表语有两种情况，一种是现在分词做表语，一种是过去分词做表语，这两者区别是考试中经常考到的地方。一般来说，表示心理状态的动词如excite，interest等都是及物动词，汉语意思不是“激动”，“高兴”，而是“使激动”、“使高兴”，因而现在分词应该是“令人激动的”、“令人高兴的”，过去分词则是“感到激动的”和“感到高兴的”。所以，凡表示“令人……的”都是-ing形式，凡是表示“感到……”都用-ed形式。换句话说，若人对……感兴趣，就是somebody is in terestedi n...，若人/物本身有兴趣时，就是说sb./sth. is interesting。这类词常见的有：
interesting 使人感到高兴—interested感到高兴的 
exciting令人激动的—excited感到激动的
delighting令人高兴的—delighted感到高兴的 
disappointing令人失望的—disappointed感到失望的
encouraging令人鼓舞的—encouraged感到鼓舞的
pleasing令人愉快的—pleased感到愉快的
puzzling令人费解的—puzzled感到费解的
satisfying令人满意的—satisfied感到满意的
surprising令人惊异的—surprised感到惊异的
worrying令人担心的—worried感到担心的
如：Travelling is interesting but tiring. 旅行是有趣的，但是使人疲劳。
        The pupils will get confused if they are made to learn too much. 如果要学生学得太多，他们会感到糊涂的。 
        The game is exciting. (现在分词作表语)
        We were excited at the news. (过去分词作表语)

2、分词作定语：
分词作定语时有下面几个特点：
1)现在分词表示主动意义，过去分词一般表示被动含意。
2)现在分词表示正在进行，过去分词表示状态或做完(完成)的事。
如：He rushed into the burning house. 他冲进了正在燃烧着的房子。
        The child standing over there is my brother. 站在那儿的男孩子是我弟弟。
        The room facing south is our classroom. 朝南的房间是我们的教室。
        He is an advanced teacher. 他是个先进教师。
3)下列不及物动词也以过去分词形式做定语或表语，但不具有被动意义，这点要注意：
departed, elapsed, faded, fallen, gone, frown-up, retired,  returned, risen, set, vanished, much-traveled, newly-arrived, recently-come

3、分词作状语：
现在分词做状语与过去分词做状语的最主要区别在于两者与所修饰的主语的主动与被动关系的区别。
1)现在分词作状语时，现在分词的动作就是句子主语的动作，它们之间的关系是主动关系。
如：He went out shutting the door behind him. 他出去后将门随手关上。
        Not knowing what to do, he went to his parents for help. 由于不知如何办是好，他去找父母帮忙。
        Smiling, they came in.
2)过去分词作状语时，过去分词表示的动作是句子主语承受的动作，它们之间的关系是被动关系。
如：Cleaned, the room looks nice.
        Given more attention, the trees could have grown better.  如果对这些树多关心一些，它们本来会长得更好。
        Faced with difficulties, we must try to overcome them. 在遇到困难的时候，我们必须设法克服。

状语从句的概念：

状语从句指句子用作状语时，起副词作用的句子。它可以修饰谓语、非谓语动词、定语、状语或整个句子。根据其作用可分为时间、地点、原因、条件、目的、结果、让步、方式和比较等从句。状语从句一般由连词(从属连词)引导，也可以由词组引起。从句位于句首或句中时通常用逗号与主句隔开，位于句尾时可以不用逗号隔开。

比较while/as/when：

1、as/when引导短暂性动作的动词例句：
如：Just as/Just when/When I stopped my car, a man came up to me.
2、当从句的动作发生于主句动作之前，只能用when引导这个从句，不可用as或while。
如：When you have finished your work, you may have a rest.
3、从句表示“随时间推移”连词能用as，不用when或while。
如：As the day went on, the weather got worse.

比较untill/till：

两个连词意义相同,肯定形式表示的意思是“做某事直至某时”，动词必须是延续性的。否定形式表达的意思是“直至某时才做某事”，动词为延续性或非延续性都可以。
正确使用这两个连词的关键之一就在于判断句中的动词该用肯定式还是否定式。
肯定句例句：I slept until midnight. 我一直睡到半夜时醒了。
                       Wait till I call you. 等着我叫你。
注意：在肯定句中可用before代替：Let's get in the wheat before the sunsets.
否定句例句：She didn't arrive until 6o'clock. 
                        I didn't manage to do it until you had explained how.
1、Until可用于句首，而till通常不用于句首。
例句：Until you told me, I had heard nothing of what happened.
2、Untilwhen疑问句中，until要放在句首。
例句：Until when are you staying? 你呆到什么时候？
注意：否定句可用另外两种句式表示。
1）Not until…在句首，主句用倒装。
例句：Not until the early years of the19th century did man know what heat is.
2）It is not until…that…

状语从句的用种类：

1、时间状语从句：
表示时间的状语从句可由when, as, while, whenever, after, before, till(until), since, once, as soon as(或the moment), by the time, no sooner…than, hardly(scarcely)… when, everytime等引导。 　　
e.g. When I came into the office, the teachers were having a meeting. 　　
       He started as soon as he received the news. 　　
       Once you see him, you will never forget him. 　　
       No sooner had I gone to bed than I went to sleep. 　　
2、原因状语从句：
原因状语从句是表示原因或理由的，引导这类从句的最常用的连词是because, since, as, nowthat（既然）等，for表示因果关系时（它引导的不是从句）为并列连词，语气不如because强。 　　e.g. He is disappointed because he didn't get the position. 　　
      As it is raining, I will not go out. 　　
      Now that you mention it, I do remember. 　　
3、地点状语从句： 　　
引导地点状语从句的连词是where和wherever等。 　　
e.g. Sit wherever you like. 　　
      Make a mark where you have a question. 　　
4、目的状语从句： 　　
引导目的状语从句最常用的词（组）是so, so that（从句谓语常有情态动词）, in order that, in case（以防，以免）等。 　　
e.g. Speak clearly, so that they may understand you. 　　
      She has bought the book in order that she could follow the TV lessons. 　　
      He left early in case he should miss the train. 　　
5、结果状语从句： 　　
结果状语从句是表示事态结果的从句，通常主句是原因，从句是结果。由so that（从句谓语一般没有情态动词）,so…that, such…that等引导。 　　
e.g. She was ill, so that she didn't attend the meeting. 　　
      He was so excited that he could not say a word. 　　
      She is such a good teacher that everyone admires her. 　　
6、条件状语从句： 　　
条件状语从句分真实性（有可能实现的事情）与非真实性（条件与事实相反或者在说话者看来不大可能实现的事情）条件句。
引导条件状语从句的词（组）主要有if, unless, so(as)long as, on condition that, so(as) far as, if only(=if)。
注意：条件从句中的if不能用whether替换。 　　
e.g. If he is not in the office, he must be out for lunch. 　　
      You may borrow the book so long as you keep it clean. 　　
      So far as I know（据我所知）, he will be away for three months. 　　
      You can go swimming on condition that(=if) you don't go too far away from the river bank. 　　
      If he had come a few minutes earlier, he could have seen her. 　
7、让步状语从句： 　　
让步状语从句可由although, though, as, even if(though), however, whatever, whether…or, no matter who(when, what,…)等引导。
注意：as引导的让步状语从句一般是倒装的。 　　
e.g. Though he is a child, he knows a lot. 　　
      Child a she is, he knows a lot. 　　
      Whatever(=No matter what) you say, I'll never change my mind. 　　
8、方式状语从句： 　　
方式状语从句常由as, as if(though), the way, rather than等引导。 　　
e.g.You must do the exercise as I show you. 　　
      He acted as if nothing had happened. 　　
9、比较状语从句： 　　
比较状语从句常用than, so(as)…as, the more…the more等引导。 　　
e.g. I have made a lot more mistakes than you have. 　　
      He smokes cigarettes as expensive as he can afford. 　　
      The busier he is, the happier he feels.

使用状语从句时要注意的几个问题：　　

1、在时间和条件（有时也在方式、让步等）从句中，主句是一般将来时，从句通常用一般现在时表示将来。　　
e.g. We'll go outing if it doesn't rain tomorrow. 　　
       I'll write to you as soon as I get to Shanghai. 　　
2、有些时间、地点、条件、方式或让步从句，如果从句的主语与主句主语一致（或虽不一致，是it），从句的谓语又包含动词be，就可省略从句中的“主语+be”部分。　　
e.g. When(hewas) still a boy of ten, he had to work day and night. 　　
       If(you are) asked you may come in. 　　
       If(it is) necessary I'll explain to you again. 　　
3、注意区分不同从句：引导的是什么从句，不仅要根据连词，还要根据句子结构和句意来判别。以where为例，能引导多种从句。　　
e.g. You are to find it where you left it.（地点状语从句）　　
       Tell me the address where he lives.（定语从句，句中有先行词）　　
       I don't know where he came from.（宾语从句）　　
      Where he has gone is not known yet.（主语从句）　　
       This place is where they once hid.（表语从句）
注意：表示“一…就…”的结构 hardly/scarcely…when/before/no sooner…than和as soon as都可以表示“一…就…”的意思。
例句：I had hardly/scarcely got home when it began to rain.
            I had no sooner got home than it began to rain.
           As soon as I got home, it began to rain.
注意：如果hardly/scarcely或nosooner置于句首，句子必须用倒装结构：
例句：Hardly/Scarcely had I got home when it began to rain.
            No sooner had I got home than it began to rain.

限制性定语从句的概念：

限制性定语是指对被修饰名词或代词的必需修饰，是被修饰名词或代词不可缺少的修饰语，如果去掉它句子意思往往会不明确或会发生变化。
如：The travellers knowing about the floods took another road. 知道发大水的那些游客改道走了。
        The boys wanting to play football were disappointed when it rained. 想踢足球的那些男孩子因为下雨而感到失望。

关系代词引导的定语从句：

关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。
1）who, whom, that 这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词，在从句中所起作用如下：
例：Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他就是你想见的人吗？（who/that在从句中作主语）      
       He is the man whom/that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。（whom/that在从句中作宾语）
2)Whose用来指人或物，(只用作定语,若指物，它还可以同ofwhich互换）
例：They rushed over to help the man whose car had broken down. 那人车坏了，大家都跑过去帮忙。  
        Please pass me the book whose(of which) coverisgreen. 请递给我那本绿皮的书。
3）which, that 它们所代替的先行词是事物的名词或代词，在从句中可作主语、宾语等。
例如：A prosperity which/that had never been seen before appears in the countryside. 农村出现了前所未有的繁荣。（which/that在句中作宾语）
            The package(which/that) you are carrying is about to come unwrapped.你拿的包快散了。(which/that在句中作宾语）

关系副词引导的定语从句：

关系副词可代替的先行词是时间、地点或理由的名词，在从句中作状语。
1）when, where, why 关系副词when, where, why的含义相当于“介词+which”结构，因此常常和“介词+which”结构交替使用。
例如：There are occasions when(on which) one must yield.任何人都有不得不屈服的时候。
            Beijing is the place where(inwhich) I was born. 北京是我的出生地。
            Is this the reason why(for which) he refused our offer? 这就是他拒绝我们帮助他的理由吗？
2）that代替关系副词 that可以用于表示时间、地点、方式、理由的名词后取代when, where, why和“介词+which”引导的定语从句，在口语中that常被省略，
例如：His father died the year(that/when/in which) he was born. 他父亲在他出生那年逝世了。
            He is unlikely to find the place(that/where/in which) he lived forty years ago. 他不大可能找到他四十年前居住过的地方。

限定性定语与非限定性定语的区别：

1、形式不同：
限定性定语从句主句和从句之间不用逗号隔开，口语中使用时也不停顿；而非限定性定语从句与主句之间通常有逗号隔开，口语中使用时有停顿。
2、功能不同：
 限定性定语从句用于对先行词的意义进行修饰、限制和识别，如果去掉，就会造成句意不完整或概念不清；而非限定性定语从句用于对先行词起补充说明作用，如果省略，句意仍然清楚、完整：
如：People who take physical exercise live longer. 进行体育锻炼的人活得长些。(若把从句去掉句子就失去意义)
        His daughter, who is in Boston now, is coming home next week. 他女儿现在在波士顿，下星期回来。(若把从句去句子意义仍然完整)
3、翻译不同：
在翻译定语从句时，一般把限定性定语从句翻译在它所修饰的先行词之前，而把非限定性定语从句与主句分开：
如：He is the man whose car was stolen. 他就是汽车被窃的那个人。
        I've invited Jim, who lives in the next flat. 我邀请了吉姆，他就住在隔壁。
4、含义不同：
如：I have a sister who is a doctor. 我有一个医生的姐姐。(姐姐不止一个)
        I have a sister, who is a doctor. 我有一个姐姐，她是当医生的。(只有一个姐姐)
5、先行词不同限定性定语从句的先行词只能是名词或代词，而非限定性定语从句的先行词则可以是名词或代词，也可以是短语或句子；
另外，当先行词为专有名词或其他具有独一无二性的普通名词时，通常要用非限制性定语从句，而不用限制性定语从句：
如：Peter drove too fast, which was dangerous. 彼得开车很快，这是很危险的。(which指drive too fast)
        He changed his mind, which made me very angry. 他改变了主意，这使我很生气。(which指整个主句)
        Mr.Smith, who is our boss, will leave for Japan next week. 我们的老板史密斯先生下周要去日本。(先行词为专有名词，要用非限制性定语从句修饰)  
        Her father, who has a lot of money, wishes her to study abroad. 她父亲很有钱，希望她出国学习。(先行词为表独一无二意义的普通名词，要用非限制性定语从句修饰)
6、关系词不同：
关系词that和why可用于限制性定语从句中，通常不用于非限制性定语从句；另外，在限制性定语从句中，关系词有时可以省略，而在非限制性定语从句中关系词一律不省略。

判断关系代词与关系副词方法：

一：用关系代词，还是关系副词完全取决于从句中的谓语动词。及物动词后面无宾语，就必须要求用关系代词；而不及物动词则要求用关系副词。
例如：This is the mountain village where I stayed last year.
            I'll never forget the days when I worked together with you.
判断改错
（错）This is the mountain village where I visited last year.
（错）I will never forget the days when I spent in the countryside.
（对）This is the mountain village(which) I visited last year.
（对）I'll never forget the days(which) I spent in the countryside.
注：习惯上总把表地点或时间的名词与关系副词where, when联系在一起。此两题错在关系词的误用上。
二：准确判断先行词在定语从句中的成分(主、谓、宾、定、状)，也能正确选择出关系代词/关系副词。
例1. Is this museum ___ you visited a few days age?
        A. where 
        B. that
        C. on which
        D. the one
例2. Is this the museum ____ the exhibition was held.  
        A. where 
        B. that
        C.on which
        D. the one
答案：例1：D，例2：A
例1变为肯定句：This museum is___ you visited a few days ago.
例2变为肯定句：This is the museum ___ the exhibition was held.
注：在句1中，所缺部分为宾语，而where, that, on which都不能起到宾语的作用，只有the one既做了主句的表语，又可做从句的宾语，可以省略关系代词，所以应选D。
而句2中,主、谓、宾俱全，从句部分为句子的状语表地点，既可用副词where，又因in the museum词组，可用介词in+which引导地点状语。
而此题中，介词on用的不对，所以选A。关系词的选择依据在从句中所做的成分，先行词在从句中作主、定、宾语时，选择关系代词(who,whom,that,which,whose)；
先行词在从句中做状语时，应选择关系副词(where地点状语，when时间状语，why原因状语)。

定语从句知识体系：

 

关系代词that的用法：

1）不用that的情况：
a)在引导非限定性定语从句时。
如：（错）The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very famous here.
b)介词后不能用：
如：We depend on the land from which we get our food.
        We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
2)只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况
a)在there be句型中，只用that，不用which。
b)在不定代词，如：anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等作先行词时，只用that，不用which。
c)先行词有the only, the very修饰时，只用that。
d)先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时，只用that。.
e)先行词既有人，又有物时。
例：All that is needed is a supply of oil.  所需的只是供油问题。  
        Finally, the thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police. 那贼最终把偷的全部东西交给了警察。

主语从句的概念：

如果一个句子在复合句中充当一个主语，那么这个句子就是主语从句。主语从句通常由从属连词that，whether，if和连接代词what，who，whichwhatever，whoever以及连接副词how，when，where，why等词引导。that在句中无词义，只起连接作用。

主语从句用法：

1、主语从句的引导词：
主语从句通常由连词that和whether、连接代词或连接副词以及关系代词型what引导：
如：That he is still alive is a wonder. 他还活着，真是奇迹。
        When we arrive doesn't matter. 什么时候到没有关系。
        What we need is money. 我们需要的是钱。
        What I want to know is this. 我想知道的就是这一点。
        Whether they would support us was a problem. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个问题。

2、主语从句与形式主语it：
有时为了考虑句子平衡，通常在主语从句处使用形式主语it，而将真正的主语从句移至句末。这分三种情况：
(1)对于以连词that引导的主语从句，通常用形式主语代主语从句：
如：It's a pity that he didn't come. 很遗憾他没来。
(2)对于以连接代词(副词)引导的主语从句，可以使用形式主语代主语从句，也可直接在句首使用主语从句：
如：Whether they would support us was a problem. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个问题。  
        It was a problem whether they would support us. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个问题。
(3)对关系代词型what引导的主语从句，通常不用形式主语，总是主语从句放在句首：
如：What we need is money. 我们需要的是钱。
        What I want to know is this. 我想知道的就是这一点。
(4)如果句子是疑问句，则必须用带形式主语it的结构：
如：Is it true that he is the girl's father? 他是那女孩的父亲，是真的吗？
        How is it that you are late again? 你怎么又迟到了？

3、连词that的省略问题：
引导主语从句的连词that有时可省，有时不能省，其原则是：
若that引导的主语从句直接位于句首，则that不能省略；
若that引导的主语从句位于句末，而在句首使用了形式主语it，则that则可以省略：
如：That you didn't go to the talk was a pity. 很遗憾你没去听报告。(that不可省)
        It was a pity(that) you didn't go to the talk. 很遗憾你没去听报告。(that可省)

主语从句应注意的几个问题：

1、that引导的主语从句既可放在句首，也可放在句尾，但在下列情况下that从句不可提前。
（1）在It is said/reported...that结构中：
如：It is reported that a bank was robbed yesterday.
（2）在Ithappened/occurred...结构中：
Ithappenedthattheteacherwasnotintheofficethatday.
（3）含主语从句的复合句是疑问句时：
如：Is it ture that you will give up the job?
2、下面这种情况常用it作形式主语。在It doesn't matter+what/whatever…结构中。
如：It doesn't matter what you say.
3、由what引导的主语从句谓语动词单复数问题 what引导的主语从句一般按单数对待，但是，在实际使用中究竟按单数还是按复数对取决于其成分的含义。
如：What we need is more time.
        What were left behind were five empty bottles.

部分倒装的概念：

倒装英语句子的主语通常位于谓语动词之前，这种语序被称为正常语序。但有时出于修辞或某种特殊的语法结构的需要，需要将谓语动词放在主语之前，这种语序则叫倒装语序。主语和助动词倒置叫部分倒装。

部分倒装：

1、含有否定意义的副词位于句首时的倒装：
在正式文体中，never, seldom, rarely, little, hardly, scarcely, no sooner, no longer, nowhere等含有否定意义的副词若位于句首，则其后要用部分倒装：
如：I shall never forgive him./ Never shall I forgive him. 我永远不会宽恕他。
        He seldom goes out for dinner./Seldom does he go out for dinner. 他很少出去吃饭。
        She hardly has time to listen to music./Hardly does she have time to listen to music. 他几乎没时间听音乐。
        He little realize show important this meetingis./Little does he realize how important this meeting is. 他不甚明白这个会议的重要性。   
        We had no sooner reached the airport than the plane took off./No sooner had we reached the airport than the plane took off. 我们刚到机场,飞机就起飞了。
注：(1)对于not…until句型，当not until…位于句首时，其后的主句要用倒装语序：
如：He didn't leave the room until the rain stopped./Not until the rain stopped did he leave the room. 雨停了之后他才离开这房间。
        (2)某些起副词作用的介词短语，由于含有否定词，若位于句首，其后要用部分倒装：
如：On no accounts must this switch be touched. 这个开关是绝不能触摸的。
        In[Under] no circumstances will I lend money to him. 无论如何我也不会再借钱给他了。但是，in no time(立即，马上)位于句首时，其后无需用倒装语序：
如：In no time he worked out the problem. 他马上就算出了那道题。
2、“only+状语”位于句首时的倒装：
当一个状语受副词only的修饰且置于句首时，其后用部分倒装语序：
如：Only then did he realize that he was wrong. 到那时他才意识到他错了。
        Only in this way are you able to do it well. 你只有用这种方法才能把它做好。
        Only when he returned home did he realize what had happened. 当他回到家里时,才知道出了什么事。
3、“so+形容词或副词”位于句首时的倒装：
副词so后接形容词或副词位于句首时，其后用部分倒装：
如：So cold was the weather that we had to stay at home. 天气太冷，我们只好呆在家里。
        So fast does light travel that we can hardly imagine its speed. 光速很快，我们几乎没法像它的速度。
        So sudden was the attack that we had no time to escape. 袭击来得非常突然，我们来不及逃跑。
4、“So+助动词+主语”倒装：
当要表示前面提出的某一肯定的情况也同样适合于后者，通常就要用“So+助动词+主语”这种倒装结构：
如：You are young and so am I. 你年轻，我也年轻。
        She likes music and so do I. 她喜欢音乐，我也喜欢。
        If he can do it, so can I. 要是他能做此事，我也能。
注：(1)若前面提出某一否定的情况，要表示后者也属于同样的否定情况，则应将其中的so改为neither或nor：
如：You aren't young and neither am I. 你不年轻，我也不年轻。
        She hasn't read it and nor have I. 她没有读它，我也没有读。
        (2)注意该结构与表示强调或同意的“so+主语+特殊动词”结构的区别：
如："It was cold yesterday." "So it was."“昨天很冷。”“的确很冷。”
        "Father, you promised." "Well, so I did."“爸爸，你答应过的。”“嗯，是答应过。”
5、由not only…but also引出的倒装：
当not only…but also位于句首引出句子时，not only后的句子通常用部分倒装形式：
如：Not only is he a teacher, but he is also a poet. 他不仅是一位教师，而且是一位诗人。
        Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily. 不仅他讲得更正确，也讲得更不费劲了。
6、虚拟条件句省略if后构成的倒装：
当if引导的虚拟条件从句中含有had, were, should等时，如将if省略，则要将had, were, should等移到主语前，构成倒装句：
如：Had you come yesterday, you would have seen him. 若你昨天来，你就会见到他了。
        Should you require anything give me a ring. 如果需要什么，可以给我打电话。
        Were it not for your help, I would still be homeless. 要不是你帮助，我会仍然无家可归。
注：省略if后提前的had不一定是助动词：
如：Had I money, I would buy it. 假若我有钱，我就会买它。

强调句的概念：

强调句 (The Emphatic Pattern) 是一种修辞，是人们为了表达自己的意愿或情感而使用的一种形式。通过各种方式对句子中的某个部分进行强调，从而起到修辞的作用。英语常用的强调结构有：It is (was)+被强调部分(主语、宾语或状语)+that/who...；what…be…句型；

强调句的使用:

一、强调句句型：
1、用It is／was...that／who...句型表示强调。
（1）陈述句的强调句型：It is/was+被强调部分（通常是主语、宾语或状语）+that/who（当强调主语且主语指人）+其它部分。
e.g. It was yesterday that he met Li Ping.
（2）一般疑问句的强调句型：同上，只是把is/was提到it前面。
e.g. Was it yesterday that he met Li Ping?
（3）特殊疑问句的强调句型：被强调部分（通常是疑问代词或疑问副词）+is/was+it+that/who+其它部分？
e.g. When and where was it that you were born?
注：被强调的部分（通常是句子的主语、状语、宾语或宾语补足语）放在is／was的后面，如被强调的是人，则后面可用who，whom等代替。
如：原句：He met an old friend in the park yesterday.  
        强调主语：It was he who/that met an old friend in the park yesterday.
        强调宾语：It was an old friend that/who he met in the park yesterday. 
        强调地点状语：It was in the park that he met an old friend yesterday. 
        强调时间状语：It was yesterday that he met an old friend in the park.
2、用助动词do, does或did来强调谓语动词。
如：Do come early. 
        He did send you a letter last week.
        We're pleased that she does intend to come.
3、用主语从句+be+被强调部分，主语从句常用what引导。
如：What John wants is a ball.
        What Mary does every day is(to) give piano lessons.  

二、not...until...句型的强调句：
1、句型为：It is/was not until+被强调部分+that+其它部分：
e.g. 普通句：He didn't go to bed until/till his wife came back. 
       强调句：It was not until his wife came back that he went to bed.
2、注意：此句型只用until，不用till。但如果不是强调句型，till, until可通用；
因为句型中It is/was not...已经是否定句了，that后面的从句要用肯定句，切勿再用否定句了。

三、谓语动词的强调：
1、It is/was...that...结构不能强调谓语，如果需要强调谓语时，用助动词do/does或did。
e.g. Do sit down.务必请坐。
      He did write to you last week. 上周他确实给你写了信。
      Do be careful when you cross the street. 过马路时，务必（千万）要小心啊！
2、注意：此种强调只用do/does和did，没有别的形式；过去时用did，后面的谓语动词用原形。 

使用强调句型有以下几点请注意：

①强调句的谓语is或was永远用单数。
如：It was yesterday that I met your father in the street.
②不管被强调部分是哪种状语，只能用that连接，不得使用where、when等连词。
如：It was in the street that I met your father yesterday.
③被强调部分为人时，可用who(主格或宾格)和whom(宾格)代替that，用that也行。
如：It was your father that/whom/who I met in the street yesterday.
        It was I that/who met your father in the street yesterday.
④强调句中也要注意主谓一致、人称一致和否定转移的问题。
如：It is they who are our friends.
        It was not until ten o'clock that we got home last night.
⑤注意不要混淆强调句和其他从句。It is/was...that...为强调句标志，去掉后仍可组成一个完整的句子，只是没被强调，而其他从句一般不具备这一特征。
比较：1）It was ten o'clock when we got home last night. 我们昨晚到家时已十点了。
            2）It was at ten o'clock that we got home last night. 我们昨晚是在十点到家的。
第一句不是强调句，when不可改为that，因为去掉it was和that后，只能组成“We got home ten o'clock last night.”这样一个不完整的句子；第二句是强调句，that不可改为when。

强调句型用法拓展：

1、句首词用“It”，不能用“This”，“That”等。
2、be动词的形式是is或was，不能用复数形式are或were。若原句的谓语动词用了现在时或将来时，则用is；
若原句的谓语动词用了过去时或过去完成时，则用was。
如：It___the Chinese women that___a great role in the socialist construction.
A. is; plays
B. are; play
C .is; play
D. are; plays
答案：C 
3、被强调的部分如果是代词，强调主语用主格，强调宾语用宾格。
如：It is him that/who/whom I met in the street yesterday.
        It is I who/that am wrong.
4、连接词一般用that，当强调部分是人时，既可用that也可用who。特别注意当强调部分是时间状语或地点状语时，不能用when或where。
如：It was on Oct1st, 1949 that People's Republic of China was founded.
        It was at the gate____he told me the news.　　
        A. that
        B. what
        C. which
        D. when
答案：A
5、主谓一致问题被强调的主语要和that后面的谓语动词在数上保持一致。
如：It is Mary who often _____(help) me with my English. （helps）
        It is I that ____(be) against you. （am）
6、not...until结构的强调。
强调“not...until”引导的时间状语时，要用“it is/was not until...that...”结构，that后面的句子要用肯定式，且须用陈述句语序。 
如：We did not get off the bus until it stopped. ?
        It was not until it stopped that we got off the bus. (注意：强调该结构时not until不能分开)

独立主格结构的概念：

独立主格结构（Absolute Structure）是由名词或代词加上分词等构成的一种独立结构，用于修饰整个句子。独立主格结构中的名词或代词与其后的分词等构成逻辑上的主谓关系。这种结构与主句不发生句法上的联系，它的位置相当灵活，可置于主句前、主句末或主句中，常由逗号将其与主句分开。需特别注意的是，独立主格结构与主句之间不能使用任何连接词。

独立主格结构基本构成形式：

   名词(代词)+现在分词（过去分词；形容词；副词；不定式；名词；介词短语）　
1）名词(代词)+现在分词
   Night enshrouding the earth, nobody could make out what the dark mass was from a distance.
   黑夜笼罩大地，谁也看不清远处黑压压的一片是什么东西。
   There being no bus, we had to walk home.
   由于没有公共汽车，我们只好走回家。
2）名词(代词)+过去分词
   The workers worked still harder, their living conditions greatly improved.
   由于工人们的生活条件大大提高，他们工作得更起劲了。
   He was listening attentively in class, his eyes fixed on the blackboard.  
   他上课专心听讲，眼睛紧盯着黑板。
3）名词(代词)+不定式
   在“名词/代词+动词不定式”结构中，动词不定式和它前面的名词或代词如果存在着逻辑上的
   主谓关系，动词不定式则用主动的形式；如果是动宾关系，则用被动形式。
   The four of us agreed on a division of labor, each to translate a quarter of the book.
   我们四人同意分工干，每人翻译全书的四分之一。
   Many trees, flowers, and grass to be planted, our newly-built school will look even more
   beautiful.
   种上许多的树、花和草后，我们新建的学校看上去将更美。
4）名词(代词)+形容词
   The Trojans asleep, the Greek soldiers crept out of the hollow wooden horse.
   特洛伊人睡着了，于是希腊士兵从中空的木马里悄悄爬了出来。
   Computers very small, we can use them widely.
   电脑虽小，我们却能广泛地利用它们。
5）名词(代词)+副词
   The meeting over, our headmaster soon left the meeting room.
   散会了，校长很快就离开了会议室。 
   The lights off, we could not go on with the work.
   灯熄了，我们不能继续工作了。
6）名词(代词)+名词
   His first shot failure，he fired again.
   他第一枪没击中，又打了一枪。
   Two hundred people died in the accident, many of them children.
   两百人死于事故，其中有许多儿童。
7）名词(代词) +介词短语
   He lay at full length upon his stomach，his head resting upon his left forearm．
   他的脊背朝天，四肢伸展，头枕着左臂，直挺挺地趴伏着。
   Every afternoon a very old woman hobbled past the old house，a vast load of firewood
   on her back．
   每天下午，一个背着一大背柴禾的老妇人都会从那间破旧的房屋前蹒跚着走过。

with，without 引导的独立主格结构：

   with ( without)+宾语（名词/代词）+宾语补足语，宾语通常由名词或代词充当，但代词一定
   要用宾格
   上文的独立主格结构的几种情况都适用于此结构。
   The girl hid her box without anyone knowing where it was.
   小女孩把盒子藏了起来，没有人知道它在哪里。（without +名词/代词+动词的-ing形式）
   Without a word more spoken, she left the meeting room.
   她没再说什么话就离开了会议室。（without+名词/代词+动词的-ed形式）
   The kid feels excited with so many places of interest to visit.
   有这么多的名胜可参观，小孩很激动。（with+名词/代词+动词不定式）
   The boy was walking, with his father ahead.  
   父亲在前，小孩在后走着。（with+名词/代词+副词）
   He stood at the door, with a computer in his hand. 或He stood at the door, computer in hand.
   他站在门口，手里拿着一部电脑。（with+名词/代词+介词短语）
   With his son so disappointing, the old man felt unhappy.
   由于儿子如此令人失望，老人感到很不快乐。（with+名词/代词+形容词）
   在with (without) 的复合结构中，多数情况下with 能省略，但without 不能省略。

独立主格结构的句法功能：
 
独立主格结构在句中一般作状语，表示时间、条件、原因、伴随状况等，还可以作定语。
1）作时间状语
   My shoes removed, I entered a low-ceilinged room，treading cautiously on the soft
   tatami matting．
   我脱掉鞋子后，走进一间屋顶很低的房间，小心翼翼地踩在柔软的塌塌米垫子上。
   The governor pondering the matter，more strikers gathered across his path．
   总督思考问题时，更多的罢工工人聚集在他要通过的路上。
2）作条件状语
   Weather permitting, they will go on an outing to the beach tomorrow.
   如果天气允许的话，他们将在明天组织一次海滨郊游。
   Such being the case, you have no grounds for dismissing him.
   如果情况如此的话，你没有理由解聘他。
3）作原因状语
  The boy leading the way, we had no trouble finding the strange cave.
  由那个男孩带路，我们很容易就找到了那奇怪的洞。
   There being no further business to discuss, we all went home.
   没有别的事可讨论，我们都回家了。
4）作伴随状语或补充说明
   I took my ticket, and marched proudly up the platform，with my cheeses，the people
   falling back respectfully on either side.
   我拿着车票还有我的奶酪，雄赳赳气昂昂地跨步走向月台。人们似乎很尊敬我，纷纷向两边退去。
   Ten students entered for the competition, the youngest a boy of 12.
   十个学生报名参加了这次竞赛，年纪最小的是个12岁的男孩。
5）作定语，独立主格结构作定语其功能相当于一个定语从句。
   He is the person with a lot of questions to be settled.
   他就是有许多问题要解决的那个人。
   He was walking along the road without any street lights on its both sides.
   他走在一条两边没有路灯的马路上。
   Close to the bank I saw deep pools, the water blue like the sky.
   靠近岸时，我看见几个深池塘，池水碧似蓝天。

独立主格结构比较：

一、独立结构在句中的作用：
1、时间状语：
如：The test finished, we began our holiday. （=When the test was finished, we began our holiday.）
2、条件状语：
如：Weather permitting, they will go on an outing to the beach tomorrow. (=If weather permits, they will go on an outing to the beach tomorrow.)
3、原因状语：
如：The storm drawing near, the worker decided to stop working. (=Since the storm was drawing near, the worker decided to stop working.)
4、伴随状语：
如：He sat in the front row, his mouth half open. (=He sat in the front row and his mouth was half open.)

二、其它形式的独立结构：
1、在以上所讲的独立结构前加with，这种结构在句中可作：
1）伴随状语：
如：With the young man leading, they started toward the mountain.
        The soldiers marched forward, with guns on their shoulders(=gun on shoulder).
        He used to sleep with the window open. 
2）原因状语：
如：He felt uneasy with the whole class staring at him.
        With Tom away, we have got more room. 
3）时间状语：
如：With everything well arranged, he left his office.

三、It形式的独立结构（表示自然现象、时间、距离或环境状况等）：
如：It being Monday, the library is closed.
        It being spring, many kinds of flowers come out.

四、倒装结构：（即在独立结构中，逻辑主语在后）
1）there be形式：
如：There being no bus or taxi, we had to go home on foot.
2）such形式：
如：Such being the case, she had nothing to say.
3）介词短语形式：
如：In the sand being the mark of a man's foot, Crusoe stared at it, full of fear.

独立主格结构注意事项：

1）独立主格结构多用于书面语，尤其是描述性语言中，在口语和非正式文体中，一般用从句或两个句子来代替。独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在，名词或代词与后面的分词等逻辑上是主谓关系，独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。
如：The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.  总统被谋杀了，举国上下沉浸在悲哀之中。
2）动词不定式表示动作没有发生或即将发生，动词-ed形式表示动作已经结束，动词-ing形式往往表示动作正在进行。
如：The manager looks worried, many things to settle. 经理看上去很着急,有这么多的事情要处理。（事情还没有处理，而且是由经理本人来处理，用不定式to settle，表示将来的时间）
如：The manager looks relaxed, many things settled. 许多事情已经处理好了，经理看上去很轻松。（事情已经处理好了，用过去分词settled表示动作已经结束）
        The food being cooked, the boy was watching TV. 小孩一边做饭，一边看电视。（两个动作同时进行）
3）独立主格结构介词使用的问题：
当介词是in时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with的复合结构不受此限制。
如：A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.(hand前不能加his) 劫匪手里拿着刀闯进房间。　　　　　
当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分词，不及物动词用过去分词。
如：He lay there, his teeth set, his hands clenched, his eyes looking straight up. 他躺在那儿，牙关紧闭，双拳紧握，两眼直视上方。
4）独立主格结构与独立成分的异同：
有些分词短语可以独立存在，在句子中没有逻辑上的主语，作为习惯用法。这些短语有：Generally speaking（总的说来），Frankly speaking（坦率地说），Judging from （从……判断），Supposing（假设），等等。
如：Generally speaking, the rule is very easy to understand. 总的说来，这条规则很容易懂。
        Judging from what he said, he must be an honest man. 由他所说的来判断，他一定是一个诚实的人。
有些固定短语是带to的不定式，表明说话人的立场或态度，在句中作独立成分。这些短语有：to be honest（老实说），to be sure（确实），to tell you the truth（说实话），to cut a long story short（长话短说），to be frank（坦率地说），to make matters/things worse（更糟糕的是），等等。
如：To tell you the truth, I made a mistake in the word spelling. 说实话，我犯了一个拼写错误。
        To make things worse, many of the men have gone off to cities in search of higher pay, leaving women from nearby villages to carry on with the work.
       情况更糟的是，许多男人都去城市找工资较高的工作，而留下附近村庄的妇女来继续承担修复工作。
5）独立主格结构与分词短语都可以转换为状语从句。但是独立主格结构转换为状语从句后，它有自己的逻辑主语，与主句的主语不一致；而分词短语转换为状语从句后，从句的主语与主句的主语一致。
如：If time permits, we'd better have a holiday at weekends.
转换为：Time permitting, we'd better have a holiday at weekends.  如果时间允许，我们最好周末去度假。
       When we see from the hill top, we can find the city more beautiful.
转换为：Seeing from the hill top, we can find the city more beautiful. 从山顶上看，我们发现这个城市更美了。
还必须注意，分词结构的逻辑主语并不总是和主句的主语一致，也可以是主句的其他成分。
如：Searching for the thief in the city, it had taken the policemen a long time. 在城市里搜查小偷，花费了警察很长一段时间。（Searching短语的逻辑主语是主句中的policemen）

定义：

直接引语：直接引用别人的原话，并在原话前后加引号。
　　　　    例：He said:" It is too late." 
间接引语：用自己的话转述别人的话，多数以宾语从句的形式构成。
　　　　    例：He said it was too late.

直接引语与间接引语的转换：

一、人称代词的变化： 
直接引语变间接引语时，人称代词的变化一般规律是：
        第一人称→第三人称；
        第二人称→第一人称；
        第三人称→第三人称。
        简记为“二一、一三、三留”。 
例："I'm thinking of changing my address." he said.
   → He said that he was thinking of changing his address.（I和he指同一个人）  
        Xiao Ming asked me, "Are you going to the park with us?"
  → Xiao Ming asked me if I was going to the park with them.（us与them指相同的人，XiaoMing是其中的一员；me和you指同一个人）
       Mr. Li said, "She will attend the meeting."
  → Mr. Li saidthatshewouldattendthemeeting.（Mr. Li和she不是同一个人） 但当说话者是第一人称，直接引语中的主语也是第一人称时，不作变化。 
       I said to my children, "I will give you some presents on Christmas Day."
  → I told my children I would give them some presents on Christmas Day. （I为同一说话者）

二、时态的变化：
直接引语变间接引语时，时态的变化规律是往“过去”相应的时态推移：
        一般现在时→一般过去时，
        一般将来时→过去将来时，
        现在进行时→过去进行时，
        现在完成时→过去完成时，
        一般过去时/过去完成时→过去完成时。
如：My father told me, "He will come back next week."
   → My father told me that he would come back the next week.
        She asked me, "Did you finish your homework?"
   → She asked me if I had finished my homework.
注意：直接引语属下列情况时，时态不作变化：
1、直接引语属真理或客观事实时：
如：The teacher said to us, "Light runs much faster than sound."
   → The teacher told us light runs much faster than sound.
2、主句谓语动词是现在或将来某个时态：
如：The old man often says, "I joined the Red Army when I was young."
   → The old man often says that he joined the Red Army when he was young.
3、直接引语带有具体的过去时间状语时：
如：The politics teacher said to us, "The party was founded in 1921."
   → The politics teacher told us that the party was founded in 1921.
4、直接引语谓语有情态动词：had better，would rather及need，must，oughtto等时：
如：He said to me, "I would rather live in the countryside."
   → He told me that he would rather live in the countryside.
5、直接引语为虚拟语气谓语时 e.g.Shesaid,"IwouldbehappyifIwereabird."→ Shesaidthatshewouldbehappyifshewereabird.

三、句型的变化：
直接引语变间接引语时，句型要作适当变化：
1、变陈述句为由that引导的从句（that常省略）：
如："I want to improve my English at school," said the child.
   → The child said(that) he wanted to improve his English at school.
2、变一般疑问句为由if/whether引导的从句：
如："Are you sure he will come today?"Jenny asked Helen.
   → Jenny asked Helen if/whether she was sure he would come that day.
3、变选择疑问句为由whether...or.../whether...or not引导的从句：
如："Is he a director or an actor?" she asked me.
   → She asked me whether he was a director or an actor.
4、变反意问句时，要视说话者的语气而定：
（1）表示疑问时，先需去掉后面的反意问句部分，再按一般疑问句变化。
如："You haven't finished your composition, have you?" the teacher said to me.
   → The teacher asked me if I had finished my composition.
（2）表示提醒或警告等特别语气时，先按陈述句变化，再把间接引语前的动词更换为表示相应语气的动词remind，warn等。
如："You're late for class, aren't you?" the teacher said angrily to me.
   → The teacher warned me that I was late for class.
5、变特殊疑问词开头的问句为原特殊疑问词引导的从句：
如："When did you come here?" Tom asked Jim.
   → Tom asked Jim when he had gone there.
6、变祈使句为不定式短语，作动词ask，tell，order，beg，request，advise，offer，warn等的宾语补足语，宾语为说话者的对象，选什么动词，视情况而定：
如：The doctor said to the patient, "Don't eat oily food again."
   → The doctor advised the patient not to eat oily food again.
7、变感叹句为how或what引出的从句，也可用that引出从句：
如："How clever a boy he is." the teacher said to the mother.
   → The teacher told the mother how clever a boy he was.
或：The teacher told the mother that he was clever boy.
8、直接引语是多个句子时，按其句型特点，用上面的方法分别处理，并用and连接：
如：Mrs. Smith said, "I don't know the way to the station. How can I get there?"
   → Mrs. Smith said that she didn't know the way to the station and asked me how she could get there.
9、若直接引语是What's the matter?/What has happened?/What's wrong with...? 时，变成间接引语语序不变：
如："What's the matter?" said he.
   → He asked me what was the matter.

直接引语变间接引语词语转化对比：

直接引语	间接引语
this, these	that, those
here	there
now	then
today,tonight	that day,that night
this evening	that evening
last week	the week before
tomorrow	the next/following day
yesterday	the day before
next week/month/year	the next week/month/ year
ago	before
come	go

注意：如果在当时转述别人话，不必要改变时间状语；在原地转述别人的话，也不必改变地点状语，同样，come也不一定要改为go。
如：John said just now, "I came here yesterday."
    →John said just now that he came here yesterday.