不定代词：
即不指明代替任何特定名词或形容词的代词。
初中常用不定代词有：
some（something，somebody，someone），any（anything，anybody，anyone）， no（nothing，nobody，no one），
every（everything，everybody，everyone，），all，each，both，much，many，（a）little，（a）few，other（s），
another，none，one，either， neither等。一般来讲，修饰不定代词的词要置于其后。

不定代词用法例举：
①一般用于肯定句中的不定代词：some, someone, somebody, something
例如：They can speak some Japanese.
②一般用于否定句、疑问句和条件句中的不定代词：any, anyone, anybody, anything
例如：Is there anyone at home?
③一般用于句中表示否定意义的不定代词：no, no one, nobody, nothing
例如：I have no watch.
There is nothing wrong with the machine.
④不定代词one指代可数名词，既可指人，亦可指物，它可以代替上文中出现的单数可数
名词，指代复数名词时可以用ones。
例如：I do not have a pen, can you lend me one?
I like small cars better than large ones.
⑤none通常只用作名词，在句中作主语、宾语等。意为“没有任何（人或物）”，既可指人，亦可指物。
none后常跟of短语，其后用复数可数名词或不可数名词。
例如：None of them knows the answer to the question.
⑥both, all
both指两个人、物或群体；
all指三个以上的人、物或群体或泛指一切事物。
例如：My parents are both teachers.
           All of my friends are football fans.
⑦every, each
each一般用于指两个或两个以上的人或物，侧重个别；
every用于指三个或三个以上的人或物，侧重全体。而且each所指对象在上下文中已十分明确。
例如：Each student went to see that films. (学生至少二人)
            Every student went to the park.（学生至少三人）        
⑧other, the other, others, the others, another
other具有名词和形容词性质，既可指人，亦可指物。other常与定冠词the连用。
不定冠词an与other连用则组成another。other只作形容词或代词，表示“其他的，别的”，不可单独使用。
例如：Do you have any other questions?
the other作形容词或代词，特指两者中或两部分的另一个或另一部分。
例如：The bookshop is on the other side of the street.
 others相当于“other+名词”，泛指“别的人或物”，只有名词性用法。
例如：Some are planting trees, others are watering them.
the others相当于“the other+名词”，表示“剩下的，其余的”，特指除此之外的全部 人或物。
例如：There are forty-six students in our class. Two of them are foreign, the others are all Chinese.
another作形容词或代词，泛指三个或三个以上不定数目中的“另一个”。
例如：This pen is too expensive, please show me another.
⑨either, neither
either指“两者中的任何一个”；neither指“两者中无一”，具有否定意义。
例如：You can take either half.
Neither of the books is good.
⑩many, much, most
many和much具有名词和形容词的性质，都表示“许多、大量”。
Much一般只能指代或修饰不可数名词，many只能指代或修饰复数可数名词。Most指“大部分、大多数”。
例如：Many boys like playing soccer.
We have much homework to do every day.
Most students think so.
(11)few, a few, little, a little
a few 和a little 意为“少数、少量”,其意义是肯定的。
A few指代或修饰复数形式的可数名词，a little指代或修饰不可数名词。
Few 和little意为“几乎一点没有”，具有否定意义。
例如：He has a few friends here.
Hurry up! There is little time left.

不定代词的用法：
不定代词大都可以代替名词和形容词，在句中作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。
位置
不定代词+形容词
不定代词+to do
作主语
Both of them are teachers．他们两人都是教师。
作宾语
I know nothing about this person．我对这个人一无所知。
作表语
This book is too much for a child．这本书对一个小孩来说太难了。
作定语
There is a little water in the glass．玻璃杯里有一些水。
作状语
I can't find my book anywhere．我在任何地方都不能找到我的书。
修饰不定代词的词，一般情况下要后置。

形容词：
简称adj.或a，形容词用来修饰名词或代词，表示人或事物的性质、状态，和特征的程度好坏与否，形容词在句中作定语，表语，宾语补足语。
她是一个好学生，她学习努力。She is a good student, and she works hard.
这辆自行车很贵。This bike is expensive.
对不起,我现在很忙。I am sorry, I'm busy now.
你为这次会议做好准备了吗? Have you got everything ready for the meeting?
形容词的语法功能：
一、作定语
He is the greatest writer alive.他是依然健在的伟大的作家。
Somewone else has done it.别人已经做了这事。
二、作补语
形容词做主语补足语和宾语补足语时,可以表示其现状、状态，也可以表示某一动作的结果，并常用在表示“认为，看待”的动词如believe，prove，consider等候。例如：
The news made her sad.这消息使他感到非常悲伤。
Don't marry young.不要早婚。
三、作状语
形容词或形容词短语可作状语，形容词作状语时，可以看作是“being+形容词”结构的省略，可表示时间、原因、条件、方式、强调或伴随状况等意义。例如：
Enthusiastic，they are co-operative.热心的时候他们是很合作的。
Rich or poor, young or old, we all have problems.不管是穷人还是富人，不管是年轻人还是老人，我们都有问题。
四、做表语
The ship was adrift on unknown seas．那艘船在陌生的海域漂流。
五、做主语
Old and young joined the discussion.
Rich or poor meant the same to him.作感叹语
Very good!Say it again.
Stupid!He must be crasy.

形容词的几个特殊用法：
most 同形容词连用而不用 the, 表示 " 极,很,非常, 十分"。
It's most dangerous to be here. 在这儿太危险。
I cannot do it, it's most difficult. 我干不了这件事，太难了。

"The+形容词比较级..., the+形容词比较级..." 表示 " 越... 就越..."。
The more you study, the more you know. 你学的越多, 就知道的越多。
The more I have, the more I want. 我越有就越想要有。
The more, the better. 越多越好。

" 形容词比较级 + and + 形容词比较级 ", 表示 " 越来越... "。
It's getting hotter and hotter. 天气越来越热了.
It's pity he is getting poorer and poorer. 真可怜他越来越穷了。
The computer is cheaper and cheaper. 计算机越来越便宜。
The more and more people focus on the meeting next year. 越来越多的人关注明年的会议。

主语+谓语(系动词)+as+形容词原形+as+从句。表示两者对比相同。
This box is as big as mine. 这个盒子和我的一样大。
This coat is as cheap as that one. 这件衣服同那件衣服一样便宜。
 I study English as hard as my brother. 我同我兄弟一样学习努力。

the + 形容词 表示某种人。
He always helps the poor. 他经常帮助穷人。
I like to have a talk with the young. 我喜欢同年轻人谈话。
The rich sometimes complain their empty life. 富人有时抱怨他们空虚的生活。
The police led the old man across the street. 警察领老人横过马路。

以-ly结尾的形容词
1） 大部分形容词加-ly可构成副词。但 friendly，deadly，lovely，lonely，likely，lively，brotherly，仍为形容词。
改错：(错） She sang lovely.　　           （错） He spoke to me very friendly.
　　 （对） Her singing was lovely.　　（对） He spoke to me in a very friendly way.
2）有些以-ly 结尾的词既为形容词，也为副词。
daily，weekly，monthly，yearly，early
The Times is a daily paper.
The Times is published daily.

too+adj.+to句型   “太…而不能”
  He is too young to go to school.
 =He isn’t old enough to go to school.
 =He is so young that he can’t go to school.

形容词的位置:
1.形容词一般放在名词前作定语  
单个形容词修饰名词时，一般要放在名词的前面。它们的前面常常带有冠词、形容词性物主代词、指示代词、数词等。例如：  
a red flower一朵红花
an interesting story一个有趣的故事  
six blind men 六个盲人
my own house我自己的房子
如果有两个或两个以上的形容词修饰一个名词时，则由它们和被修饰的名词之间的密切程度而定，越密切的形容词越靠近名词。
如果几个形容词的密切程度差不多则按音节少的形容词放在前面，音节多的形容词放在后面。  
2.当形容词所修饰的词是由some,any,every,no等构成的不定代词时，形容词必须置于名词之后。例如：  
    She has something new to tell me.她有一些新的情况告诉我。  
    I have nothing important to do today.今天我没有重要的工作要做。  
    Do you know anybody else here?这儿你还有认识的人吗？  
3.形容词后面有介词短语或不定式短语时，形容词必须置于名词之后。例如：  
    It is a problem difficult to work out.这是一道难以解决的问题。  
    Edison is a student difficult to teach.爱迪生是个很难教的学生。  
    This is a kind of flowers easy to grow.这是一种易栽的花。  
4.用 and 或 or 连接起来的两个形容词作定语时一般把它们放在被修饰的名词后面。起进一步解释的作用。例如：  
    All people,young or old,should be strict with themselves.  
    所有的人，无论老少，都应该严格要求自己。  
    We are building a new school, modern and super.  
    我们正在建一所现代化的高档次的新型学校。  
    All countries, rich and poor, should help one another. 所有的国家，无论穷富都应该互相帮助。  
5.有少数形容词，如enough和possible，既可置于所修饰的名词前面也可以置于它所修饰的名词之后。例如：   
Do you have enough time(time enough)to prepare?你有足够的时间做准备吗？   
Maybe it will be a possible chance(chance possible)for you.或许它将成为一次可能的机遇。
6.有些形容词，置于名词之前与之后，含义不尽相同。例如：  
the writer present 出席的作者  
the present writer 现在的作者
7.表示长，宽，高，深，及年龄的形容词，应放在相应的名词之后。
This river is about 100 metres wide.
The building is more than 50 metres tall.
 He is less than 40 years old.
8. enough修饰名词时，在名词前后都可以。
They said that they had enough food.= They said that they had food enough.
 enough 修饰形容词和副词，位于其后。
 He is old enough to join the army.
 He isn’t old enough to go to school.
9.形容词else通常放在疑问代词，疑问副词或不定代词后
 what/who/where/when/when else
 something/anything/nothing…else
 What else did you do?
 Do you have anything else to say?
10.由两个或两个以上的词组成的形容词词组修饰名词时须放在名词之后。
This is the book easy to read.
这是一本容易读的书。

形容词知识拓展:
名词化的形容词：
有些形容词可以和定冠词连用，表示一类人或事物，这时，它相当于一个名词，可作主语或宾语；
表示一类人时，看作复数，表示一类事物时，通常看作单数。
Robin Hooh(罗宾汉) hated the rich and loved the poor.
The old are taken good  care of in American.
the+形容词，常见的短语有：
the old/the young/the sick/the white/
the black/the rich/the poor/the dead(死者)

形似副词的形容词：
以-ly结尾的词通常是副词，但是下列词为形容词。
friendly  lonely (孤独的) ；lively (活着的)；lovely(可爱的)

复合形容词的类型：
(1)名词+过去分词  man-made satellite 人造卫星
(2)形容词+现在分词  a good-looking man
(3)形容词+名词  second-hand cars
(4)数词+名词-ed   three-legged chairs三条腿的椅子
(5)数词+名词  400- metre race
(6)副词+现在分词  hard-working students
(7)副词+过去分词  well-known writers
(8)形容词+形容词  a dark-red jacket
(9)形容词+过去分词  ready-made clothes 成品服装

含有形容词的常用句型：
(1) It’s+adj. of sb. to do sth.
(good/ kind/nice/polite/clever/foolish… )
It’s very kind of you to help me.
(2) It’s +adj. for sb. to do sth.
(difficult/easy/hard/dangerous/usefulinteresting/important…)
It’s important for us to learn English well.
(3)下列形容词后常跟动词不定式
 表示情感或情绪的形容词：glad,pleased,sorry,sad,afraid,thankful…
 I'm glad to see you.
表示能力，意志或推测的形容词：ready,able,sure,certain…
 I’m sorry to hear that.

某些现在分词和过去分词可作形容词
the moving story 令人感动的故事
a moved boy   一个被感动的男孩
a frightened child 一个被吓到的孩子
a frightening film 一个恐怖电影

疑问副词：
用来引导特殊疑问句，表示时间，地点，方式，原因等。
常见的有：when,where,how,why等。

疑问副词的用法：
1.疑问副词是问何时、何地、如何、因何的副词，主要有when, where, how, why。

2.疑问副词用在句首。
How long have you been staying in America?
你在美国待多久了?

3.疑问副词在句中引导名词子句。
I want to know where she has gone.
我想知道她去哪里了。

4.疑问副词后接不定词构成的名词片语，在句中可以作主词、受词或主词补语。
How to solve the problem gives him a bad headache.
如何解决这个问题使他伤透脑筋。
（How to solve the problem作主词。）
I don't know how to answer the question.
我不知道如何回答这个问题。
（how to answer the question作受词。）
The patient is in urgent need the medicine, but the problem is where to get it.
这个病人急需这种药,但问题是哪里能找到。
（where to get it作主词补语。）

5.疑问副词引导的名词子句可作主词、受词或主词补语。
When we are to start the competition hasn't fixed yet.
我们什么时候开始比赛还没有定下来。
（When we are to start the competition作主词。）
She asked her husband where he had been.
她问她丈夫去哪里了。
（where he had been 作受词。）
The question is when we can finish our work.
问题是我们何时能完成我们的工作。
（when we can finish our work作主词补语。）

疑问代词与疑问副词的区别：
1. 疑问代词做对陈述句的主语，宾语或定语提问，即做句子的主语，宾语或定语，如what, who/ whom, whose.
eg. Who is talking ? What can you see?
Whose shirt is this?
2.疑问副词对时间，地点，方式等状语提问，如when, where, how 等.
eg. When is your birthday? Where are you going?
How do you know?
常见的疑问代词：what  who  which  whom(只做宾语）
疑问副词：how  where  when
还有whether是疑问连接词。

实意动词：
即行为动词，表示动作的动词。实义动词与系动词是相对的，能独立用作谓语。
它分为及物动词和不及物动词两种：
及物动词是指后面要求有直接宾语的动词；
不及物动词指后面不需要跟宾语的动词。

实意动词使用方法：
及物动词
后面必须跟宾语意义才完整的实义动词，叫做及物动词(transitive verb)。如：
I believe that the committee will consider our suggestion.我相信委员会将会考虑我们的建议。
“How long can I keep the book ?”Harry asked.哈里问：“这本书我可以借多久?”
Dr. Bethune set us a good example. 白求恩大夫给我们树立了好榜样。
Crude oil contains many useful substances.原油含有许多有用的物质。

不及物动词
本身意义完整后面不须跟宾语的实义动词，叫做不及物动词(intransitive verb)。如：
Birds fly.鸟会飞。
It happened in June 1932.这件事发生于一九三二年六月。
My watch stopped.我的表停了。
She spoke at the meeting yesterday evening. 她在昨天晚上的会上发了言。

兼作及物动词和不及物动词
英语里有不少实义动词可以兼作及物动词和不及物动词。这样的动词又有两种不同的情况
a)兼作及物动词和不及物动词时，意义不变。试比较：
Shall I begin at once?我可以立刻开始吗?(begin作不及物动词)
She began working as a librarian after she left school.她毕业后当图书馆管理员。(began作及物动词)
When did they leave Chicago?他们是什么时候离开芝加哥的？(leave 作及物动词)
They left last week. 他们是上周离开的。(left 作不及物动词)
b)兼作及物动词和不及物动词时，有时意义不尽相同。如：
Wash your hands before meals.饭前要洗手。
Does this cloth wash well? 这布经得起洗吗?

英汉实意动词用法比较：
与汉语的比较，有时英语动词的及物和不及物的用法，与汉语的用法不一样，请注意下列两种情况：
a)有的动词在英语里只能用作不及物动词，而汉语则可用作及物动词，如arrive到达，agree同意，listen听。英语里这些动词后面常接介词。如：
We arrived at the railway station at noon.
我们于中午到达火车站。(at不能省去)
(比较：We reached the railway station at noon.)
Everybody listened to the lecture with great interest.
每个人都很有兴趣地听讲课。(to不可省去)
(比较：We all heard the lecture.)
Do they agree to the plan?他们同意这个计划吗?(to不可省去)

b)有的动词在英语里能用作及物动词，而在汉语里则不能用作及物动词，如serve为…服务。
Our children are taught to serve the people wholeheartedly.
我们的儿童被教以全心全意为人民服务
用于be动词之后，实义动词之前。

 实意动词的用法：
肯定句：
主语+动词过去式+其它
否定句：
主语+助动词didn‘t+动词原型+其他
一般过去式：
Did+主语+动词原型+其他

宾语从句：
在句子中起宾语作用的从句叫做宾语从句。
宾语从句分为三类：动词的宾语从句，介词的宾语从句和形容词的宾语从句。
宾语从句连接代词主要有：
who, whom ,whose ,what ,whoever ,whomever ,whosever, whatever, whichever 等。

宾语从句的特点:
1.宾语从句可以作及物动词、介词及形容词的宾语。
2.宾语从句的语序一律用陈述句语序。
3.连接词that引导宾语从句在句中无词义，不充当句子成份，多数情况下可以省略。
4.whether 和 if 都可引导宾语从句，但 whether后可紧跟or not；whether从句可作介词的宾语。
5.如果从句太长，可以用形式宾语it.

宾语从句的时态:
1.主句是一般现在时，从句根据实际情况使用任何时态。
例句：The headmaster hopes everything goes well.
2.主句是过去时态，从句须用过去时态的某种形式。
例句：She was sorry that she hadn’t finished her work on time.
3.当宾语从句表示的是一个客观真理或者事实时，即使主句是过去时，从句也用一般现在时态。
例句：The teacher told his class that light travels faster than sound.
4. 如果从句的动作发生在主句之前，则从句要用过去完成时态。 

宾语从句的语序:
A. 宾语从句必须用陈述语序。 　　
False: He is wondering when can he finish this difficult job. 　　
Right: He is wondering when he can finish this difficult job.
B. 有时候可以用it 作形式宾语，而把真正的宾语从句放在后面。 　　　
Bad: I thought that he could finish this　job in just two hours impossible. 　　
Good: I thought it impossible that he could finish this job in just two hours.　 
C. 带有宾语从句的复合句的否定形式一般是否定主句。
Bad: I think he doesn’t like the English teacher. 　　
Good: I don’t think he likes the English teacher. 
D.  主句一般过去时态，从句也要用过去时态。
False: He wanted to know why he is crying in the corner. 　　
Right: He wanted to know why he was crying in the corner

宾语从句的否定转移:
主句的谓语动词是think,believe,imagine,suppose,consider,espect,fancy,guess等。
并且主句的主语是第一人称而且为一般现在时，从句的否定词一般要转移到主句上来,其反义疑问句一般与宾语从句一致。
I don’t think he will come to my party.而不能说成I think he won’t come to my party.
我认为他不会来我的舞会.
I don’t believe that man is killed by Jim,is he?
我认为那个人不是Jim所杀的,是不是?
如果宾语从句中有某个含有否定意义的形容词或副词,其反义疑问句要用肯定形式。
We find that he never listens to the teacher carefully,does he?
我们发现他从来不仔细听老师讲课，是不是?

宾语从句中引导词的用法比较
在复合句中作主句的宾语，引导词有：
连词：that (that 常可省略),whether, if
代词：who, whose, what ,which
副词：when ,where, how, why 等。

（一）that引导的宾语从句（在非正式场合that可以省略）
1.可跟that从句做宾语的动词有：
say, think, insist, wish, hope, demand, imagine, wonder, know, suppose, see, believe, agree, admit, deny, expect, explain, order, command, feel, dream, suggest, hear, mean, notice, prefer, request, require, propose, declare, report等。
例句：The boy believes that he will travel through space to other planets.
注意事项：当主句谓语动词是 think, believe, suppose, expect 等词，而宾语从句的意思是否定时，常把否定转移至主句表示。
例句：I don’t think it is right for him to treat you like that.

2.在以下情况中that不能省略
a.当句中的动词后接多于两个由that引导的宾语从句时，第一个that可省，但后面的that不可省。
例句：He said (that) you were too young to understand the matter and that he was asked not to tell you.
b.当主句的谓语动词与that宾语从句之间有插入语时，that一般不可省。
例句：Just then I noticed, for the first time, that our master was wearing his fine green coat and his black silk cap.
c.当that从句是双宾语中的直接宾语时，that不可省。
例句：I can’t tell him that his mother died.
d.注:许多带复合宾语的句子，that引导的宾语从句经常移到句子后部，而用it作形式宾语。
例句：I find it necessary that we should do the homework on time.

（二）由whether,if 引导的宾语从句
1.由whether(if)引导的宾语从句，实际上是一般疑问句演变而来的。意思是“是否”。宾语从句要用陈述句语序。
一般说来，在宾语从句中whether与if可以互换使用，但在特殊情况下if与whether是不能互换的。
例句：I wonder whether(if) they will come to our party.

2.只能用whether，不能用if引导的宾语从句
a.在带to的不定式前
例句：We decided whether to walk there.
b.在介词的后面
例句：I’m thinking of whether we should go to see the film.
c.在动词后面的宾语从句时
例句：We discussed whether we had a sports meeting next week
d.直接与or not连用时
例句：I can’t say whether or not thet can come on time.

3.只能用if不能用whether引导的宾语从句
a.if引导条件状语从句，意为“如果”
例句：The students will go on a picnic if it is sunny.
b.if引导否定概念的宾语从句时
例句：He asked if I didn’t come to school yesterday.
c.引导状语从句even if（即使）和as if（好象）时
例句：He talks as if he has known all about it.

if,whether在宾语从句中的区别
a.if和whether在作“是否”解时,引导宾语从句常放在动词know,ask,care,wonder,find out等之后,介词后一般不用if
b.少数动词,如:leave,put,discuss,doubt后的宾语从句常用whether. 
c. whether后可以加or not,但是if不可以.
d.在不定式前只能用whether.
（如：I can’t decide whether to stay. 我不能决定是否留下。）
e.避免歧异时,我们常用whether而不用if.

（三）连接代词和连接副词引导的宾语从句
这样的宾语从句实际上是由特殊疑问句变化而来的，宾语从句要用陈述句语序。
用于这种结构的动词常常是：see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, show, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt, wonder, discover, understand, inform, advise等。
1.英语中的连接代词有：who,whom,whose,which,what,在句中担任主语、宾语、定语或者表语。
例句：Can you tell me whom you are waiting for?
2.英语中的连接副词有：when,where,why,how，在句中担任状语的成分。
例句：None of us knows where these new parts can be bought.

简化宾语从句常用六法：
方法一：
当主句谓语动词是hope， decide， wish， choose， agree， promise等，
且宾语从句的主语与主句主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为不定式结构。
例如：
Li Ming hopes he will be back very soon.
→Li Ming hopes to be back very soon.
We decided that we would help him.
→We decided to help him.

方法二：当主句谓语动词是know， learn， remember， forget， tell等动词，
且主句主语与从句主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+不定式”结构。例如：
She has forgotten how she can open the window.
→She has forgotten how to open the window.
注：当主句谓语动词是tell， ask， show， teach等动词，
且后带双宾语，从句主语和间接宾语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+不定式”结构。例如：
Could you tell me how I can get to the station？
→Could you tell me how to get to the station？

方法三：当主句的谓语动词是order（命令），require（需要）等时，
如果主句和从句的主语不一致，宾语从句可简化为“名词（代词）+不定式”结构。例如：
The headmaster ordered that we should start at once.
→ The headmaster ordered us to start at once.

方法四：某些动词后的宾语从句，可以用介词加动名词（短语）等其他形式简化。例如：
He insisted that he should go with us.
→He insisted on going with us.
The poor boy doesn’t know when and where he was born.
→The poor boy doesn’t know the time and the place of his birth.

方法五：某些动词后面的宾语从句可转化为“宾语+V-ing形式（作宾语补足语）”结构。例如：
Liu Ping found that there was a wallet lying on the ground.
→ Liu Ping found a wallet lying on the ground.

方法六：动词seem后的宾语从句，也可以用不定式（短语）来简化，但句型需要进行适当的变化。例如：
It seemed that the boys were going to win.
→The boys seemed to win.
除上述方法外，还有一些特殊句式的转化。例如：
I found that it was difficult to learn English well.
→I found it difficult to learn English well.
Soon we found that the ground was covered with thick snow.
→Soon we found the ground covered with thick snow.
They found that the box was very heavy.
→They found the box very heavy